Robert H. Leyse*
INZ Inc., P. O. Box 2850, Sun Valley, ID 83353
bobleyse@aol.com
Abstract
Leyse has pioneered the field of microscale
phase change heat transfer to water at ultra-high power density with fine
platinum wires, 7.5 μm diameter, that are joule heated in pressurized degassed deionized
water. Each wire functions
simultaneously as a heat transfer element and as a resistance thermometer as
originated by Nukiyama (1934). These experiments cover the pressure range from
200 to 4000 PSIA and the heat flux range from very low to 4000 W/cm2
while bulk water temperature is maintained in the range of 20 oC. These investigations cover two separate
situations: Case (i) constant pressure and varying power, and Case (ii) somewhat
constant power and varying pressure.
Limited explorations reveal a significant impact of dissolved nitrogen (saturated)
at 1000 PSIA.
introduction
One reviewer of an early Leyse paper remarked, “The study has
used interesting ultra high heat fluxes over a wide pressure range. New
transition paths are demonstrated in the results. The author does not claim
fundamental explanations of the phenomena, but he challenges the theoreticians
as well as the numerical modelers to use their skills instead for further study
of the phenomena. However, because the report contains new results that are
interesting enough to excite new theories in the field of boiling phenomena, I
recommend its publication.” To date
neither Leyse nor anyone else has come forth with related new theories in the
field of boiling phenomena.
APPARATUS AND PROCEDURES
The heat transfer element is a fine platinum wire, 7.5 μm diameter by 1.14 mm long. It is installed within the lower end of a vertical
stainless steeel tube, 0.3 inches
internal diameter. by 8 inches long. The
arrangement of the platinum wire and
ancillary support apparatus is detailed in Figure 1 in which the pyrex tube is
repalced by the stainless steel tube for the high pressure runs of this
presentation. The microscale heat
transfer element is welded to platinum terminals, 0.020 inch diameter. The local water temperature is measured with
a chromel-alumel thermocouple that is sheathed withn a 0.020 inch diameter
stainless steel assembly. This thermcouple junction is about 0.020 inches below the horizontal
fine platinum wire. The assembly is filled with degassed, demineralized water
and is pressurized with a pneumatic hand pump.
Pressure is monitored with a Rosemount recording pressure transducer .
The
heat transfer element is powered with a programmed direct current power source. The power measurement is
atraightforward. A 10 ohm precision
resistance is in series with platinum element.
Voltage is measured across the platinum element and across the 10 ohm
resistance. The product of these two
voltages divided by 10 yields the power in watts to the platinum element. All data, the two voltages, the pressure, and
the water temperature is recorded every
0.1 second in an excel spreadsheet which
facilitates data handling, plotting and analysis.
The programmed power supply controls the
total voltage drop across the two resistances.
This is a satisfactory arrangement for the runs in which power is
programmed during the series of runs at constant pressure, Case (i). As will be discussed later, it is an
acceptable, although possibly a less satisfactory arrangement for runs at
somewhat constant heat flux, Case (ii). (The runs at somewhat constant heat
flux were an afterthought; a worthwhile afterthought). A run at constant pressure is completed in
about 10 seconds, the power increases for 5 seconds and then decreases for 5
seconds (Figure 2).
runs at constant pressure and varying power
The top plot in Figure 3 covers all of the data for eight runs at constant pressure
ranging from 200 to 6000 PSIA. At subcritical pressures 200, 1000 and 2500 PSIA, the
inception of nucleate boiling begins at progressively increasing
temperatures, 240, 307 and 349 oC.
The plots are nearly identical for the
increasing and decreasing data sets. (At
3000 PSIA there is a unique situation that is detailed in a later discussion, Figures 4 and 5.)
At supercritical pressures there is
completely different characteristic. The temperature of the heat transfer
element increases vastly with only a modest inclrease in heat flux, in contrast
to the nucleate boiling charactersitc at subcritcial presssures where only a
modest increase in temperature yields a substantial increase in heat flux.. At
6000 PSIA the increasing and decreasing plots are almost identical beyond 550 oC,
and are somewhat together over their entire span. The divergence between increasing and
decreasing data sets progressively increases for runs at the pressure data sets
from 6000, 5000, 4300 to 3600 PSIA.
The plots for the increasing power only are the
mid set in Figure 3. Note that the
departures from natural circulation are somewhat similar for the runs at 3600
and 4300 PSIA in the temperature range from
the critical temperature to about 550 oC. This is in contrast to the runs at 5000 and
6000 PSIA. The 3000 PSIA case is clearly distinct.
The consistently parallel plots in the lower
set in Figure 3also include the 3000
PSIA case. It is interesting that at all
pressures, the return to natural circulation without phase change heat transfer
is at progressively lesser subcritical temperatures, although the 6000 PSIA
case is very close to the critical temperature.
It is also interesitng that the 3000 PSIA case fits very well into the
trends.
runs at constant pressure and varying power with dissolved nitrogen
The apparatus also has been operated as
described with the water saturated with disolved nitrogen. A supply of nitrogen under high pressure was
valved to the apparatus for several days at 1000 PSIA such that the water
became saturated with disolved nitrogen.
Leyse discovered that the presence of dissolved nitrogen changed the heat
transfer during non phase change heat transfer (natural circulation). It also alterted the point of departure to
phase change heat transfer. He received a U. S. Patent for his process. The
plots in Figure 6 are copied from the patent. The following text is copied from
the patent; the refernces to FIG. 4 and FIG. 5 are for the plots in Figure 6.
The
plot of power applied versus resistance of the sensor element when immersed in
degassed water at approximately 1000 psi is shown in FIG. 4. A corresponding plot of water saturated with
nitrogen at approximately 1000 psi shown in FIG. 5 reveals several aspects
which quantify the presence of dissolved nitrogen in the nitrogen saturated
water relative to the degassed water.
Each curve has a region of linear increasing slope S and a knee K at
which the slope abruptly increases. With
degasssed water the linear slope S is 0.26 watts/ohm while for water saturated
with nitrogen the slope S is 0.19 watts/ohm.
With degassed water, the coordiantes of the knee K are 8.7 ohms and 0.97
watts while with water saturated with nitrogen, the coorddinates of the knee
are 8.0 ohms and 0.66 watts. Similar
calibrations may be produced for intermediate concentrations of dissovled
nitrogen.
It is not necessary to present this
discovery as plots of heat flux vs. temperature in order to have an operational
and patentable device. However, it is
clear that the heat transfer coefficient during natural circulation is
substantially less with dissolved nitrogen.
It is also clear that the transition from natural circulation to phase
change heat transfer occurs at a substantially lower heat flux for the case
with dissolved nitrogen. It appears that
the transition from natural circulation to phase change heat transfer has a
somewhat rounded shape with dissolved nitrogen in contrast to the relatively
sharp transition with degassed water. This
apparent difference in the shape of the transition very likely has no practical
applications; however, it should be of interest to “theoreticians and numerical
modelers.” I propose to substitute, “The apparent
difference in the shape of the transition is under investigation (Appendix
A, Application of MOOSE)
Figure 3 Microscale Phase Change Heat Transfer to
Subcooled Water – Three Plots
Runs at substantially constant power and varying pressure
These runs were completed as an
afterthought. Each of four runs has the
total voltage set at a fixed value.
(Recall that the total voltage is the sum of that across the 10 ohm
resistance plus that across the platinum element.) A run proceeds as follows: The apparatus is pressurized to about
6000PSIA, power is turned on, and pressure is steadily reduced to about 200
PSIA over a period of about 20 seconds. See Figures 7 and 8. Figure 7 is a plot of heat flux during each
run; the runs are coded according to the peak heat flux in each; 2630, 2930,
3010 and 3360 W/cm2. Figure 8
is a plot of the corresponding
temperature of the heat transfer element during each run.
For run 2630, the plot is smooth over the
entire span and the heat flux is within 30 W/cm2 of 2600 W/cm2 for
the span from about 6000 PSIA to 1000 PSIA.
The corresponding temperature plot, Figure 8, is also smooth and
relatively flat.
Runs 2930 and 3010 each have a distinct
upward step of about 200 oC at about 3800 and 4200 PSIA
respectively. Next, each has a steep temperature increase up to the critical
temperature at which point the temperature “turns around” and a steep decrease
follows until there is a step decrease at about 2400 PSIA for each. The step decreases each terminate very near
to the saturation temperature.
Run 3360 has the same character as runs 2930
and 3010, although the upward step is at a higher pressure than is covered in
these investigations.
The heat flux plots, Figure 7, reflect the
varying resistance of the platinum element.
An increase in resistance of the element (temperature) leads to an
increased voltage drop and an increased power.
This is a consequence of the control by fixed voltage across the series
circuit of the 10 ohm resistance and the platinum element. As the resistance of the platinum element
increases, its fraction of the total voltage increases. Although this leads to less amperage in the
circuit, the net impact is an increase in power to the platinum element. The circuit design turns out to be
fortuitously tailored for this investigation because if the heat flux was
indeed held constant over the pressure range it would take a multitude of runs
to discover the step changes as well as the turnaround at or near the critical
pressure.
In Figure 8 the plots of all runs are very
close together at pressures from about 1400 PSIG to termination of the runs at
about 300 PSIG. This because the heat
transfer is by nucleate boiling, and at any given pressure the temperature
varies relatively little with heat flux.
Clearly, the plots would be very similar to these even if constant heat
flux had been achieved over that pressure range. This is consistent with the plots in Figure
4 in two respects; one, at any given pressure the temperature varies relatively
little with heat flux, and two, the difference between the platinum temperature
and the saturation temperature decreases as the saturation temperature
increases.
Apparatus FOR MONITORING the circulation patterns
Apparatus is visualized for determining the circulation
patterns. Two phases are planned. The first phase will utilize the present
assembly with two opposed elements. One
element will be will powered and the opposite element monitor temperature. The test procedure will include pulsed
application of high heat flux and precise timing of the response of the
temperature element. The data from this apparatus, especially
the precision timing data, will be applied to check out MOOSE. (APPENDIX A).
The second phase will include a complex
assembly with perhaps eight platinum elements.
One element will be the heat transfer element while others will be
resistance thermometers. At least two of
the elements will be vertical. A series
of runs will have the heat transfer source rotated among the elements. Circulation patterns will be inferred via
data analysis. One challenge is to
support and deliver power to the fine platinum wires without unduly disturbing
the flow patterns; fine copper wires under tension may be feasible.
Details of the campaign are incomplete. These phase two activities will be iterative; a series of assemblies will be
modified from run to run, etc. The MOOSE analysis will significantly
impact the arrangements of the platinum elements. The
analysis and application of the measurements will also lead to
adjustments of MOOSE.
Measurements to date have been at 0.1 second
intervals. Future capability will
include 0.001 second intervals and perhaps faster. A faster recording capability will yield
further detail of at least three aspects of the runs to date; the jump from
about 480 oC to 876oC at 3000 PSIA, the increasing
and the decreasing step changes during the runs at substantially constant
power, and the sharpness of the transitions from natural circulation to
nucleate boiling or supercritical conditions.
The run series will include at least six
features:
1. Ramped runs with durations including and exceeding the
ten seconds of runs to date.
2. Runs with step power inputs up to 4000 W/cm2
and precise timing of responses of temperature detectors.
3. Runs at system pressures from one atmosphere to 400
atmospheres.
4. Runs at system bulk temperatures form 20oC to
370oC.
5. Runs with step power input up to 4000 W/cm2
and controlled uniform rate of system pressure decrease from 6000 PSIA to 200
PSIA over 10 seconds and 20 seconds.
6. Runs designed to improve this application of MOOSE.
COMMENTS
At subcritical pressures this work did not
explore heat transfer regimes beyond nucleate boiling. At the time it was
believed that achieving 4000 W/cm2 at 1000 PSIG was remarkable. Leyse believed that burnout was less likely
at one third of the critical pressure and therefore the programmed power was
restricted to lesser peak heat fluxes at higher subcritical pressures. The
results at 3000 PSIA with the brief time, about 0.3 seconds, in the nucleate
boiling regime, followed by the fantastic jump across the supercritical
temperature arena with very little increase in power justifies the tame
approach in setting peak voltage. The
exploration of the supercritical arena also proceeded with caution; however,
4000 W/cm2 was achieved at 6000 PSIA.
Finally, Bakhru and Lienhard, 1972,
disclosed in their publication, BOILING FROM SMALL CYLINDERS that,
“Nucleate boiling does not occur on the small wires” and “Three modes of heat
removal are identified
for the monotonic curve and
described analytically: a natural convection mode, a mixed film boiling and
natural convection mode, and
a pure film boiling mode.” However,
although those wires are three to ten times the diameter of the 7.5 micron
platinum wires of this work; this work clearly revealed nucleate boiling from
the small wires. Balhru and Lienhard only collected data at low pressures; it
would be a relatively easy experiment to deploy those wires at higher pressures
in order to reveal a transition to nucleate boiling.
referenceS
1. Bakhru, N. and Lienhaard, J. H., Boiling from small
cylinders, Int. J. Heat and Mass
Transfer, vol. 15, pp. 2011-2025, 1972.
2. Leyse, R. H., Method for monitoring for the
presence of dissolved gas in a fluid under pressure, United
States Patent 5,621,161 April 15, 1997.
3.
Leyse, R. H., Microscale heat transfer to pressurized water at ultra-high power
density, Proceedings of the International
Conference, Thermal Challenges in Next Generation Electronic Systems,
Millpress, pp195-197, 2002.
No comments:
Post a Comment